To what extent are gender differences socially constructed Essays

To what extent are gender differences socially constructed Essays To what extent are gender differences socially constructed Essay To what extent are gender differences socially constructed Essay Many sociologists believe gender is socially constructed (i. e. it is mostly created by society and is not completely natural, as gender identity varies between societies and within societies). Some sociologists argue that gender is the result of environmental influences, particularly the way we are taken care of by our parents or guardians. On the other hand a number of sociologists argue that gender is the result of nature, due to the effects of hormones, brains or genes of the two sexes. Haralambos and Holborn (1995) In terms of how we understand identity a distinction between sex and gender must be drawn. Nick Jorgensen, John Bird, Andrea Heyhoe Bev Russell (1997). Sex deals with what are often biological differences, while gender is about a socially constructed role. Therefore, labels women and man are about both biological and social differences. Jorgensen, Bird, Andrea Russell (1997) Pg 23 Gender roles have a big influence on our lives, and there is a lot of evidence that suggests gender roles are culturally rather then biologically produced. Oakley (1972 cited in Haralambos and Holborn 1995) this means individuals are taught the behaviour that is expected of males and females within their society. These processes create systems of ideas and practises about gender that vary across time and space. They also create gender divisions of labour, allocating women and men to different activities and responsibilities. Bilton, Bonnett, Jones, Lawson, Skinner, Stanworth and Webster (2002) Pg 132. Many studies have shown that gender roles can differ considerably due to the culture of tha t society. This illustrates whatever the biological differences between males and females, it is the culture of the society which exerts most influence in the creation of masculine and feminine behaviour. Haralambos and Holborn (1995) Further more primary and secondary socialisation influences the behaviour of girls and boys from an early age. The roles themselves are made quite clear from the start; females are weak, more emotional and do not have strong sexual desires. Whereas, males are strong less emotional and have powerful sexual desires. Stephen Moore (1987) Parents tend to treat girls and boys differently in ways that influence their development. Oakley talks about four main ways in which socialisation takes place in gender roles. Firstly the childs self- concept is affected by manipulation. Secondly differences are achieved through canalisation involving the direction of boys and girls towards different objects. (Oakley 1972 cited in Haralambos and Holborn 1995 Pg 589/590) For instance girls are expected to be neat and tidy, to appreciate they are wearing pretty dresses and to be aware of their appearances. They are also given different toys to boys such as dolls, to play mother with and cooking and washing up appliances whereas, the boys are given toy guns, building bricks. All these activities encourage different forms of behaviour. (Stephen Moore 1987) The third aspect of socialisation is the use of verbal appellation such as thats a good girl. Or youre a naughty boy. (Oakley 1972 cited in Haralambos and Holborn 1995 Pg 590) this leads boys and girls to identify their gender and imitate adults of the same gender. So the son copys his father and is taught the traditional views of a man and the girl copys her mother and is taught traditional views of a women. Finally male and female children are exposed to different activities. (Oakley 1972 cited in Haralambos and Holborn 1995 Pg 590) Girls in particular are encouraged to become involved in domestic everyday jobs which reinforces stereotypes of masculinity and femininity. In addition primary socialisation can also cause differences in attitude to education research by Harris et al (1993) into attitudes of working class 16 year old boys and girls found that girls tented to be better motivated and more hard working than boys. The boys were easily distracted in class and were less determined to overcome educational difficulties. The researchers concluded that these attitudes were linked to the gender regimes they encountered in their homes and communities. Girls who were exposed to women who were organisers of the home and family and wage earners, displayed the same characteristics i. e. they were also organised with schoolwork and homework. However, the stereotype of the male was the macho male that did not care about authority and just liked to be in the company of other males. Researchers felt some of the boys were already fulfilling this stereotype in their approach to school. Moreover sociologists argue that teachers spend more time with boys and concentrate their efforts more on them. (Moore 1987 Pg 53) Like parents who are more likely to label their sons as less interested in school and education at an early age (Eccles study) teachers have different expectations of from boys and girls. Boys are expected to be more boisterous, girls to be quieter and more obedient. As a result, teachers are likely to treat the children differently according to their sex. (Moore 1987 Pg 53) There are also many other ways in which socialisation into gender roles takes place. Identification also takes place; children see themselves as their parents or television heroes. So as well as imitating their parents they also play at being parents/hero figures. Peer group pressure is also applied by friends, as friendships develop along sex lines with boys playing with boys and girls playing with girls, both playing different types of games. Stephen Moore (1987). From the viewpoints described above it would seem gender is socially constructed in the sense that differences in the behaviour of males and females are learned rather than being the inevitable result of biology. Haralambos and Holborn (1995) In contrast to this argument some sociologists would argue biologically differences are believed to be responsible for the behaviour of boys and girls and their roles in society. Stoller (cited in Haralambos and Holborn 1995) claims there are no vital links between femininity and being a woman, and being a man and behaving in a masculine way. Not all girls are caring and sympathetic and not all boys have to be aggressive and competitive. Some sociologists believe that hormones and brain differences can explain the difference in behaviour and roles of males and females. Both males and females produce sex hormones. Usually women produce larger amounts of progesterone and oestrogen, whilst males usually produce more testosterone and other androgens. The activity of a wide range of hormones is closely integrated with the activity of the nervous system, and so hormones can influence behaviour, personality and emotional disposition. (Haralambos and Holborn 1995 Pg 582) There has been much research done on animals to show evidence that there is link between the hormone androgens and aggressive behaviour such as castrated male rats fighting less, whereas female rats given more androgens after birth being more aggressive in adult life than other female rats (Haralambos and Holborn 1995). However, there have been criticisms made of the hormonal explanations of the study mentioned above by Ruth Bleier. In general, it is dangerous to assume that the same hormonal changes in animals would result in the same behaviour as humans. Such experiments are not conclusive. (Haralambos and Holborn 1995 Pg 582) In addition there are claims that hormones have indirect effects on male and female brain development as well as direct effects. Research has also concentrated on the issue of brain lateralisation. It is believed that the left and right hemispheres of the brain specialise in different tasks. The left hemisphere specialises in language and logical skills whereas the right is mostly responsible for visuospatial abilities. (Haralambos and Holborn 1995) It is alleged that the left hemisphere is more dominant in girls, and that in boys the right hemisphere is more dominant. This difference might be due to the hormonal influences on the brain. On the other hand Ruth Bleier has no ted the contradictory findings of the studies in this area. For example, some studies claim that girls are less lateralised than boys; some claim the reverse to be true; and some find no difference between boys and girls. (Haralambos and Holborn 1995 Pg 583) Moreover another biological explanation for the difference in behaviour of males and females is genetic and evolutionary factors. Some sociologists believe these reasons account for the difference in male and female behaviour. Some sociologists argue that social scientists who assume that human beings behave simply in terms of their culture and society are ignoring what they call human biogrammer. (Haralambos and Holborn 1995 Pg 583) This is a genetically based programme which inclines people to behave in certain ways. Although it is similar in men and women, Tiger and fox argue that compared to women, men are more aggressive and dominant and that these characteristics are genetically based. (Haralambos and Holborn 1995 Pg 584) This is partially because genetic inheritance and because a genetic adaptation to a hunting way of life. Males hunt which can be found to be an aggressive activity. To conclude, to support a biological case we would need to establish that a universal difference exists, that men and women across societies are characterised by more or less identical behaviours. We would also need to show that this difference is actually caused by biology and not in the similarities in upbringing. The more segregated the worlds that women and men inhabit, the harder it is to demonstrate that nature, rather than nurture, accounts for gender difference. (Bilton, Bonnet, Jones, Lawson, Skinner, Stanworth Webster 2002 Pg 132) Sociologists have tried to move away from the debate as to whether sex and gender shapes male and females behaviour Both David Morgan and Linda Birke argue sex and gender interact. Sex differences and vice versa. (Haralambos and Holborn 1995 591)

How the Domestic System Changed essays

How the Domestic System Changed essays The domestic system was the name given to the way most goods were made in 1750. The mothers and children would stay in their homes to produce the goods for an employer. They would use spindles to make the goods and could work for as long as they wanted to. They would get paid by how many products they made. However, due to the rise in population, machinery stated to be used to speed up the process. Now instead of the people working at home, they worked in a factory using these machines. The first industry to use the machines was the textile industry. The machine was called the Spinning Jenny and was invented by a man called James Hargreaves. If the Spinning Jenny ever jams, the people would send a child under the machine to fix it...while it is still running! The children would have many accidents like loosing fingers or having their hair pulled out. Also they worked by the clock, they would have to work 14 hours a day. And if any of the workers were not working well or not producing enough goods a strapper would strap them until they started working properly. In the Domestic System the people would get paid by peace work. In other words the amount they got paid depended on how much goods they would make. Yet in the factory they got paid 25% more than in the home but they got paid by how much time they worked and how many days they showed up for work. The jobs that were given in the goods production business were:- The knocker-up: this person would, in a morning, go around peoples houses banging his stick on peoples houses to wake them up and he would continue to bang his stick until he saw a person in the house awake. The Strappers: this person would walk around the factory watching people work and if someone was to under work, the strapper would strap them. The employees: both men and women would work in the factory unlike in the Domestic System where just the women and children (mainly girls) wou...

Article Review and Reflection TopicHuman resouce Literature

Article and Reflection TopicHuman resouce - Literature review Example Research Questions or Hypotheses The research question holds a central position in a research paper. It addresses the idea, in brief, that the researcher explains in the course of his paper. Generally, the research question is stated specifically although sometimes, to address complex issues, multiple questions have to be mentioned. A common phenomenon observed among the Chinese enterprises is described by the phrase ‘lasting briefly, and growing with difficulty’. With the passage of time, the mindset of people has undergone changes along with economic development of the country. In the later part of the 1980s, the term ‘Private Economy’ emerged in China. The economic entities which are invested into by a non-government body or a private enterprise or individual and run by them are known as privately operated economy. They are based on private resources and do not embody the state capital. There are several small and medium enterprises that are emerging in t he country based on private investment. Such firms, although faring well in the initial phase, sometimes cannot grow further later on. It is quite difficult for any enterprise to hold on to its existence if it becomes stagnant. The hypothesis made in this paper is: whether the difficulties faced by the private enterprises is owing to the problem arising in the management of their human resources. Literature Review The literature review of a research paper provides guidance in the formation of a theoretical and conceptual framework required for the study. This builds the base on which the entire research work is founded. The literature review provides the backdrop for research work and shows further avenues for conducting research. In this current paper, the theory of small and medium private enterprises in China and their basis of management have been well established. Consequently, the authors have discussed the hurdles that these firms face, and the links between these problems an d their improper management structure. Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework pertaining to a research work is inclusive of three broad things: the problem to be addressed, the literature review and the purpose of research. Foreign companies operating in China had brought in the term ‘Human Resources’ into China. In simple words, the term refers to the workers that work in a certain organization and their capability to do productive work. They are an integral part of an enterprise since the development of a firm, both economically and socially, depends to a great extent on the human resources of the firm. The workers’ efforts can be categorized into two divisions: physical work and intellectual work. Not only does the quantity of production made by the workers put an upward thrust on the performance of the company in the market but is also largely dependent on the efficient management of the resources that would lead to a good quality of their performance. Human resources management, thus, plays a crucial role in any organization’s administration for it to remain healthy over time. By ‘effective human resources management’ one emphasizes the management of human resources in a reasonable and scientific way. A reasonable utilization of human resource